- The Deepwater Horizon disaster on April 20, 2010, was the largest offshore oil spill in U.S. history, releasing an estimated 4.9 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico over nearly three months.
- Fifteen years later, the gulf ecosystem shows a complicated picture of both resilience and lingering damage, with some species, like brown pelicans, recovering, while others, like humans, dolphins and deep-sea corals, continue to struggle with long-term health impacts.
- The disaster prompted an unprecedented legal settlement directing billions toward restoration projects, though experts debate whether these funds have been used effectively for ecosystem-scale recovery.
- Climate change remains the “800-pound gorilla in the room,” threatening the gulf’s future resilience, one expert said, with others warning that continued pressure from fossil fuel development, agricultural runoff and other threats could push the system beyond its capacity to recover.
PLAQUEMINES PARISH, U.S. — Down past New Orleans lies Plaquemines parish, a narrow sliver of land at the tip of Louisiana that reaches southward like a finger pointing into the Gulf of Mexico. Past barbecue joints, a naval base, Baptist churches, white egrets, blue herons, and signs advertising items FOR SALE (live shrimp, empty lots and crawfish), Captain Kindra Arnesen lives with her husband and dog in a tidy brick house that smells like eucalyptus potpourri and home cooking.
“There’s nothing I’d rather be doing than be out on the water fishing, especially offshore. I like to get high up on the boat and look out over the water as far as I can see,” Arnesen told Mongabay while stirring a pot of beans. She has worked small commercial fishing boats out in the gulf for decades. “The only thing I love more is my grandbaby.”
“Before the spill, you could ride out there and everywhere you rode there were bait balls of bonita, blue runners, thread herrings, spinners jumping through them. Everywhere you went it was just a sight,” Arnesen recounted, referring to plentiful schools of small fish and spinner dolphins in the open ocean. “After the spill you could ride a hundred miles and not see a bait ball … It slowly died.”
April 20, 2025, marked the 15th anniversary of what is known as the Deepwater Horizon disaster, when an oil rig operated by BP Exploration & Production exploded and sank in the Macondo prospect, 66 kilometers (41 miles) off the Louisiana coast.
Eleven workers died in the initial explosion, and 17 were seriously injured. What followed became the largest offshore oil spill in U.S. history. Oil flowed from the damaged wellhead nearly 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) below the sea surface for almost three months before engineers finally capped it in mid-July 2010.
All told, an estimated 4.9 million barrels of oil (the equivalent of more than 210 million gallons, or 800 million liters) entered the sea. It slicked 111,000 square kilometers (43,000 square miles) of the gulf’s surface, and smeared more than 2,000 km (1,300 mi) of coast in oil and tar balls.
The response operation was unprecedented in scale, involving several federal agencies, five U.S. gulf states, local governments, dozens of nonprofits and universities, the oil and gas industry, fishing communities, and thousands of volunteers.
BP paid the largest environmental damage settlement in U.S. history, more than $20 billion, and paid out billions more to individuals and businesses.
Fifteen years later, the gulf tells a complicated story of resilience and lingering damage, adaptation and ongoing threats, bureaucratic failures and scientific breakthroughs. The Deepwater Horizon disaster has become both a cautionary tale and a testament to nature’s ability to recover, though many questions remain about its long-term consequences.
Nature’s resilience and vulnerability
“One of the things that a lot of people don’t understand about the gulf is how resilient it is,” Larry McKinney, former director of the Harte Research Institute, part of Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, told Mongabay. During the spill response, McKinney led a team connecting academic researchers and on-the-ground government agencies.
The Gulf of Mexico’s resilience comes from its unique structure and abundance of life. The loop current from the Caribbean mixes and stirs the water, carrying animals and nutrients throughout the region.
“That whole physical structure is really, really impressive and doesn’t exist anywhere else,” McKinney said. “Then biologically, this is one of the most biodiverse places in the world,” he said. “We’ve got coral reefs, massive fisheries, whales, dolphins. We’ve got everything else here … The only thing we don’t have is ice.
“The problem is that we’ve come to take that [resiliency] for granted,” he added. While the gulf has absorbed the insult and its productivity is bounding back, McKinney said, “The 800-pound gorilla in the room is climate change and how it’s changing things so quickly.”
Wildlife impacts
Whales and dolphins: Still suffering
The BP oil spill hit marine life in the Gulf of Mexico hard, with some animals still struggling while others are bouncing back. Nearly all 21 species of dolphins and whales in the gulf showed signs of injuries, according to the National Wildlife Federation.
The disaster cut the population of critically endangered Rice’s whales (Balaenoptera ricei) by 22%. With only about 50 of these whales left in the gulf, another big spill could wipe them out completely.
The spill also took a toll on other whale species. Vulnerable sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) numbers dropped by up to 31%, and beaked whales, from the family Ziphiidae, by up to 83%. Recovery work now focuses on reducing other threats, like ship strikes and underwater noise.
Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in heavily oiled Barataria Bay are still sick 15 years later, Cynthia Smith from the National Marine Mammal Foundation told Mongabay.
Smith led dolphin health checks by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) after the spill. She found “higher mortality rates, increased prevalence of moderate-severe lung disease, impaired stress responses, high rates of reproductive failure, and overall poor health” compared to dolphins in clean areas, she said.
When Smith’s team checked again in 2023, they found dolphins exposed to the spill still had lung problems “at least as bad, if not worse, than before.”
One dolphin, called Y21, remains in Smith’s thoughts. Y21 was pregnant when they first examined her in 2011, a year after the spill. “She was extremely ill,” Smith said. “You could just tell by the way her eyes looked, the way she was breathing. She was somewhat dull, a little bit too quiet.” Y21 lost her baby and couldn’t carry two more pregnancies to term, though she lived until 2019.
“She’s just an animal that really embodies what that whole bay went through,” Smith said. “It wasn’t just about life and death, about survival. It was also about health and welfare, and that she had been impacted to the point where she lived out a life, but she was very unhealthy and wasn’t able to reproduce.”
The good news is that dolphins born after the spill seem healthier. “We are optimistic that the next generation of dolphins can lead the population to recovery,” Smith said.
Birds: Success amid devastation
Some of the most haunting images to emerge from the spill showed pelicans struggling under the weight of oil, feathers dripping with thick brown ooze, like grotesque statues.
P.J. Hahn, former coastal director of Plaquemines parish, was on the frontlines of the Deepwater Horizon disaster response. “The oil would float on top of the water and fish would jump out and end up landing on top of that thick oil … They’d just sit there and bake on top of the oil. The pelicans would fly over and when they saw a fish, they would dive for it. They’d catch it but also go right through the oil and pop up covered in oil … It was just horrible.”
The spill happened during nesting season. Hahn described how “the pelicans would fly back to the nest covered in oil, and they’d sit either on the eggs or they’d sit with the chicks, and it covered the eggs or the chicks with the oil. And then when they leave again to go fish, that hot sun would just fry the egg, or fry the chick.”
Researchers estimate the disaster killed 1 million birds, with at least 93 species affected. Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), laughing gulls (Leucophaeus atricilla), northern gannets (Morus bassanus) and royal terns (Thalasseus maximus) were hit hardest.
Up to 27,000 brown pelicans died due to the spill, according to the National Wildlife Federation. Oil also damaged or destroyed critical nesting habitat.
But brown pelicans are one of the better recovery stories. Money from BP’s settlement has funded major habitat restoration projects in all five Gulf states, rebuilding islands that birds need for nesting.
An $18.7 million project paid for by the BP settlement money expanded Queen Bess Island off Louisiana, creating 15 hectares (37 acres) of habitat for pelicans and other birds. The results are impressive. Wildlife officials counted 30,000 birds on Queen Bess Island in 2023, including 6,000 brown pelican nests.
Alisha Renfro, senior manager for coastal policy at the National Wildlife Federation, visited in 2025. “It was really great to see these baby, prehistoric-looking pelicans,” she said. “So I think populations, if you can give them healthy habitat, they can recover with time.”
Sea turtles: Long-term effects
The oil spill was devastating for sea turtles in the Gulf. Four kinds of sea turtles were directly exposed to oil in the ocean, along the coast, and on beaches: the critically endangered Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), the vulnerable loggerhead (Caretta caretta), the endangered green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the critically endangered hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata).
The death toll was huge: killing an estimated 4,900-7,600 large juvenile and adult sea turtles and between 56,000-166,000 small juvenile sea turtles.
Kemp’s ridley sea turtles were hit hardest, with 27,000 and 65,000 estimated to have died in 2010. About 20% of all one- to two-year-old Kemp’s ridleys alive at the time of the spill died because of it.
“Even today, researchers are finding evidence of lingering health impacts on some Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, such as abnormal hormone levels that can affect metabolism and other body processes,” the National Wildlife Federation reports.
NOAA rescue teams saved more than 300 oiled sea turtles from offshore areas. These turtles were cleaned, treated and later released into clean waters. Teams also dug up eggs from turtle nests on beaches threatened by oil in Alabama and Florida, moving them to controlled warehouses where they could safely hatch. About 14,000 baby turtles, mostly loggerheads, were later released on the Atlantic coast, away from the oil-contaminated gulf.
Recovery work continues through many approaches, including reducing light pollution near nesting beaches, reducing fishing net deaths, protecting nesting areas in Texas and Mexico, improving rescue networks, and reducing boat strikes. However, all four species remain threatened with extinction.
“With long lived species like sea turtles that spend most of their lives at sea, it will likely take many more years to know the impacts of the spill,” Donna Shaver, Chief of the Division of Sea Turtle Science and Recovery for the National Park Service at Padre Island National Seashore told Mongabay.
The deep ocean: Hidden impacts and slow recovery
While most people saw oiled turtles, birds and beaches, some of the worst and longest-lasting damage happened deep underwater, in ocean ecosystems few people ever see, including vibrant deep-sea corals.
“When the well broke, oil spewed out under high pressure, in little drops like paint from a spray paint can,” Paul Montagna from the Harte Research Institute, who helped NOAA assess the deep-sea damage, told Mongabay.
Oil gushes into the Gulf of Mexico from a failed BP blowout preventer. Image courtesy of the US Department of Energy.
Instead of rising straight to the surface, these oil droplets mixed with “marine snow,” a natural shower of tiny particles, including plankton, microbes and waste that constantly falls toward the seafloor. “The marine snow literally trapped that atomized oil and sent it straight to the bottom,” Montagna said. “We’re pretty sure that 35% of oil released wound up in the bottom of the ocean through what we call the marine oiled snow process.”
This oil-soaked marine snow created a toxic layer over huge areas of the seafloor, home to corals, crustaceans, mollusks, polychaetes and assorted other rare invertebrates. “Number one, it’s on the top, so it’s going to start suffocating things. Number two, it’s full of these PAHs [polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons], so it’s going to start literally killing things,” Montagna said. “The sensitive species either declined or completely disappeared.”
Montagna found that the area of seafloor with medium to severe oil damage covers 321 km2 (124 mi2). When you include areas with possible effects, that figure expands to 23,388 km2 (9,030 mi2) — about three-fourths the size of Belgium.
The only natural remediation process for many areas is the continuous rain of new sediment that will gradually bury the contaminated layer. Montagna estimates it could take 50 years for the northern gulf’s deep-sea ecosystem to fully recover.
Deep-sea corals, which can live for hundreds or thousands of years, suffered extensive damage. Large colonies of black coral (Leiopathes glaberrima), some more than 2,000 years old, were found damaged or dead in areas hit by the spill.
In a pioneering effort to restore deep-sea coral, scientists are growing coral fragments in special laboratories. Once mature enough, these lab-grown corals are carefully transported to the ocean floor, where U.S. Navy divers and underwater robots place them in damaged areas. While this first-of-its-kind deepwater coral restoration project is still in its early phases, researchers have observed promising signs of success.
Fish: Resilience amid exposure
The BP oil spill affected fish in the Gulf of Mexico in different ways. Some showed clear signs of oil exposure, with many reef fish developing skin lesions in 2011. Scientists found these lesions decreased by about half by 2012 as oil compounds in the water dropped.
Fish exposed to oil had various health problems. They suffered heart issues, couldn’t sense their surroundings properly, had hormone problems, and couldn’t swim well. Many fish changed what they ate after the spill, switching to different prey living deeper in the water. By 2012, though, most returned to their normal diets.
Despite these problems in individual fish, scientists haven’t found strong evidence that whole fish populations decreased. Studies in Alabama, where the volume of oil was lower than in Louisiana, showed that numbers of young fish, shrimp and crabs remained steady after the spill.
However, it’s been challenging for scientists to pinpoint exactly how much the oil spill hurt fish populations because other things were happening at the same time, like fishing pressure and the arrival of invasive lionfish (Pterois spp.) that eat native fish.
Commercial species like brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus aztecus) and white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus) also maintained stable populations in surveys, Matt Streich, director of the Center for Sportfish Science and Conservation at Harte Research Institute, told Mongabay in an email. “The general reason for minimal effect at the population level for many fish and shrimp is that they are resilient, spawn a lot of eggs/larvae, and those are dispersed widely by the currents.”
Commercial fisheries struggle to rebound
The oil spill hit Gulf Coast fishing families hard, and many are still hurting 15 years later. “Horrible and traumatic” is how Captain Kindra Arnesen from Plaquemines parish described the spill’s impact. Though things have improved somewhat, she said, “I don’t think we know what we’ve fully lost yet.”
When the spill happened, fishing was banned in more than a third of federal gulf waters (229,270 km2, or 88,522 mi2). State waters were also closed, including 95% of Mississippi’s waters and 55% of Louisiana’s.
The worst damage came after the closures ended. When gulf fishing stopped, imported seafood took over the market. So by the time fishing resumed, many customers and buyers had moved on. The spill on top of all the increased regulations meant “the smaller guys had a harder time,” Arnesen said.
Small fishing businesses were “barely hanging on” after the spill, said McKinney, the former Harte Research Institute director. Big companies had money to wait out fishing bans, but family operations couldn’t pay their bills and went out of business.
For many, the oil spill came as they were recovering from Hurricane Katrina just five years earlier. Arnesen had received the insurance settlement money from Katrina just months before the spill. “We were rebuilding our house when the spill hit,” Arnesen said. Today, her own boats sit unused because they “can’t make a living” fishing anymore.
On top of economic struggles, many fishers face health problems. “People got sick after the spill, and no one wants to talk about that,” she said.
Human health impacts
“Fifteen years have passed since the BP oil spill disaster crippled my Louisiana community,” Justin Solet, a United Houma Nation member who worked on oil rigs until the spill pushed him into activism, said in a statement. For many in United Houma Nation, a 19,000-member coastal tribe in southern Louisiana, hunting, fishing, shrimping, crabbing and harvesting oysters have been an important part of life, livelihood, and culture for centuries.
“Rarely covered in the press are the untold lives lost to sickness and suicide in the wake of the spill,” Solet said, “and the many who gave up, leaving behind their homes and communities.”
A 2021 review found similar health effects across animals and humans exposed to Deepwater Horizon oil. These included stress response impairment, heart toxicity, immune dysfunction and blood cell disruption.
“Dolphins also help us understand the long-term impacts of oil exposure on other long-lived vertebrate species, like humans,” said Smith from the National Marine Mammal Foundation. “It’s not surprising to our team that some of the health impacts diagnosed in dolphins were also detected in Coast Guard oil spill responders.”
Striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) observed in emulsified oil on April 29, 2010. Image courtesy of NOAA.
Oil cleanup workers suffered various physical problems. A 2018 study in The American Journal of Medicine documented changes in workers’ blood, liver, lung and heart functions years after the spill, with symptoms including “respiratory and eye irritation and chest tightness.”
Some of the oil was burned off from the surface of the water. “When we reached the incident site we observed numerous fires with south winds blowing the polluted smoke right into the communities of Venice, Buras and even Belle Chasse,” Hahn, the response coordinator in Plaquemines parish, wrote in a Facebook post. A 2015 study showed that exposure to similar fumes caused inflammation in the lungs and altered immune response in mice.
Mental health took a big hit too. Many people experienced depression, anxiety and trauma-related stress that lasted for years. According to a 2021 study, some residents said dealing with the complicated claims process after the spill caused more stress than the actual disaster. Communities dependent on fishing and tourism experienced greater health and financial concerns.
The disaster also revealed a major problem: the lack of baseline health data made it difficult to distinguish between spill-related ailments and other health issues.
Were settlement funds better for pelicans than people?
Though the oil spill sparked thousands of health-related legal claims, justice remains elusive for most victims. An Associated Press investigation revealed that out of approximately 4,800 health-related lawsuits filed after the disaster, nearly all were dismissed by courts, with only a single case reaching a settlement.
While BP did establish a $67 million fund for affected workers and coastal residents in 2012, 79% of nearly 5,000 claimants received no more than $1,300 each, a paltry sum compared to their reported medical expenses and ongoing health challenges. This settlement pattern reflects the broader difficulty of proving direct causation between toxic exposures and specific health conditions in environmental disasters.
At the same time, the disaster prompted an unprecedented legal settlement from BP that directed billions of dollars toward gulf restoration. Environmental lawyers helped develop the RESTORE Act, which then President Barack Obama signed into law in July, 2012, to ensure the money went directly to the impacted area rather than into a general fund.
Nearly 400 restoration projects have received or been approved for funds from the settlement so far, ranging from boat ramps to reef restoration. “I’d say the majority of the projects are really great,” Paul Mickle, co-director of the Northern Gulf Institute and an associate research professor at Mississippi State University, told Mongabay.
However, some experts are critical of how restoration funds have been used. “We’ve had a lot of local victories of restoration on the small scale, within a bay, an estuary, an oyster reef or a shoreline. Some of that has been really incredibly encouraging,” McKinney said. “But it’s too small of a scale. There’s nice little projects here and there, but nothing measurable on ecosystem-level issues.”
Because restoration settlement money is not tied to the federal government, it remains safeguarded from administrative whims. Some of the funds are still gaining interest, and money should be available for at least another decade. However, funding and staff cuts unfolding at NOAA and other government agencies under the Trump administration could halt progress on these projects. NOAA provided background information for the story but declined an interview request.
Ongoing questions and lessons learned
Fifteen years after the Deepwater Horizon disaster, scientists are still uncovering its full environmental and health impacts.
“I think 15 years is too early to tell what many of the impacts from the spill are still going to be,” Martha Collins, an environmental lawyer who worked to create the RESTORE Act and now serves as executive director for the New Orleans-based nonprofit Healthy Gulf, told Mongabay.
In the wake of the spill, it became clear there was little preparation for dealing with this kind of disaster.
“The Deepwater Horizon oil spill caught everybody off guard,” said Renfro from the National Wildlife Federation. “The last big spill we had had was Exxon Valdez back in the ’90s, so everyone was prepared for a spill like that, where you had a tanker and a known quantity of oil. And then Deepwater Horizon exploded, and you had oil billowing up from a mile below the ocean surface. And how do you deal with that?”
Questions remain about controversial cleanup methods, including the use of Corexit, a dispersant that may have caused additional harm and health impacts. “That was a toxin in and of itself,” Collins said.
Another method that may have done more harm than good was burning oil from the surface of the sea. “Endangered sea turtles and other marine creatures were being corralled into 500-square-mile ‘burn fields’ and burnt alive in operations intended to contain oil,” said Hahn from Plaquemines parish.
He also stressed the importance of relying on local knowledge and management when responding to a disaster. Orders from Washington, D.C., stymied early containment efforts, he said. “There was just so much mismanagement and misdirection in all of it … I think the key thing is that anytime you have a disaster, it’s always best to get the people involved that actually live in that area and know the area better than anybody.”
One of the most significant legacies of the Deepwater Horizon disaster has been the surge in scientific research and understanding of the Gulf of Mexico’s ecosystems. Responders are also better equipped to handle oil spills. NOAA opened a Disaster Response Center in Alabama to coordinate gulf emergencies. Scientists have created better tools to track and clean up oil, including satellites that can spot the thickest oil patches from space, computer models that predict where oil will travel, and new ways to measure how oil affects marine life.
“If there’s an oil spill that happens anywhere in the Gulf of Mexico, [we can now] run five to 10 models showing where the oil will go,” Mickle said.
A clear lesson from the disaster is the importance of prevention. “The key thing is the saying ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.’ We’ve got to be more careful,” said Montagna from the Harte Research Institute. “The regulation part really works. It does keep us safe.”
New safety requirements like the well control rule aim to reduce major blowouts by mandating specific equipment. But despite safety measures and improved information and technology, oil spills remain an inevitable part of offshore drilling operations. Federal records show that nearly 1,000 spills occurred in U.S. waters during 2021-2022 alone, releasing approximately 303,000 liters (80,000 gallons) of oil into the environment from pipelines, transport, and drilling. The oil pipelines in place in the Gulf of Mexico alone could circle the Earth.
“It is essentially impossible to prevent all oil spills,” says a post from the New York-based advocacy nonprofit Natural Resources Defense Council. “For the offshore oil and gas industry, they are simply a cost of doing business.”
“I don’t think we’ve learned the lesson that BP was supposed to teach us. We’re all focused now on deregulation,” Collins said. “How many times are we going to push that until we’re proven wrong?”
As the Gulf of Mexico marks this anniversary, environmental advocates warn of continuing threats to the region’s resilience. Chief among these are climate change, ongoing fossil fuel development, and Mississippi River runoff. Runoff from the largest watershed in North America creates vast hypoxic “dead zones” where nutrient pollution from agricultural fertilizers causes algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels, suffocating marine life.
“The largest challenges for the gulf don’t really have anything to do with the oil spill,” said Mickle. “A lot of it is water quality from the Mississippi River.”
“Our systems are resilient,” McKinney said, “but the window on that resilience is what’s closing. The window is climate change. You cannot keep pressuring it because at some point it breaks, and when it breaks, it doesn’t come back.”
Not a lost cause
About 32 km, or 20 mi, south of Arnesen’s house is the literal end of the road, the southernmost drivable point in Louisiana, just past the town of Venice. Lana Del Rey, who has had her own love affair with southern Louisiana, croons on the stereo as flocks of shorebirds escort vehicles to the crumbling edge of the continent, their wings silhouetted over the marsh grass, and bayous lit orange by the sherbet sunset. One bumper sticker reads: “The South is not a lost cause.”
“Everyone thinks of this as the industrial coast, the forgotten coast,” McKinney said. “And I say, well obviously you’ve never been here.” We’ve lost a lot, he said, “But my God, what’s left is still worth saving.”
“How would you feel if a person you loved was diagnosed with what was not considered a terminal illness, but they were declared a lost cause?” Collins asked. “That would break your heart. And who is to determine what causes are lost and what is still to be saved? I don’t believe in lost causes. I only believe in protecting what you love.”
Banner Image of reporter Sean Gardener (of Reuters at the time) looking down on an oil burn-off meant to clean up oil in the weeks after the spill. Image by PJ Hahn.
Liz Kimbroughis a senior staff writer for Mongabay and holds a Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Tulane University, in New Orleans, Louisiana where she studied the microbiomes of trees. View more of her reporting here.
Sweeping cuts and deregulation imperil U.S. fisheries, experts warn
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